Cartagena, Veracruz, Buenos Aires, and Hispaniola received the majority of slave arrivals, mainly from Angola. Britain arranged treaties with Portugal, Sweden and Denmark in the period between 1810 and 1814, whereby they agreed to end or restrict their trading. Joseph E. Inikori, "Ideology versus the Tyranny of Paradigm: Historians and the Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on African Societies". A major contributor to this was Olaudah Equiano, born in present-day Nigeria and sold as a slave to the Americas. [201] In 1805 the British Order-in-Council had restricted the importation of slaves into colonies that had been captured from France and the Netherlands. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Between 1600 and 1800, approximately 300,000 sailors engaged in the slave trade visited West Africa. However African rights activists denounced it as "empty rhetoric" that failed to address the issue properly. There were several factors that contributed to this. Most other slaves were obtained from kidnappings, or through raids that occurred at gunpoint through joint ventures with the Europeans. [146] After Portugal had succeeded in establishing sugar plantations (engenhos) in northern Brazil c. 1545, Portuguese merchants on the West African coast began to supply enslaved Africans to the sugar planters. To revisit the issue of intent already touched on: If an institution is deliberately maintained and expanded by discernible agents, though all are aware of the hecatombs of casualties it is inflicting on a definable human group, then why should this not qualify as genocide?"[115]. Many of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. Eltis argues that while all slave societies have demarked insiders and outsiders, Europeans took this process further by extending the status of insider to the entire European continent, rendering it unthinkable to enslave a European since this would require enslaving an insider. [169], Other historians have attacked both Rodney's methodology and accuracy. Quakers began to campaign against the British Empire's slave trade in the 1780s, and from 1789 William Wilberforce was a driving force in the British Parliament in the fight against the trade. Lord Palmerston and other British foreign ministers continued the Castlereagh policies. answer choices. [152] Other British cities also profited from the slave trade. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of emigration from Europe during this period. The number of Africans who arrived in each region is calculated from the total number of slaves imported, about 10,000,000. [192] However, in reality slavery continued in Britain right up to abolition in the 1830s. [222], The American Colonization Society's proposal to send African Americans to Liberia was not universally popular among African-Americans, and the proposal was seen as a plot to weaken the influence of the abolitionist movement. [6][7] Except for the Portuguese, European slave traders generally did not participate in the raids because life expectancy for Europeans in sub-Saharan Africa was less than one year during the period of the slave trade (which was prior to the widespread availability of quinine as a treatment for malaria). With the passing of that resolution, Virginia became the first of the 50 United States to acknowledge through the state's governing body their state's involvement in slavery. Native Americans in Atlantic slave trade. Jamestown is also recognized as one of the first slave ports of the American colonies. When he suspected the Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote to King Joo III in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice. Lovejoy, Paul E., "The Volume of the Atlantic Slave Trade. This intensified effects that were already present amongst its rulers, kinships, kingdoms and in society. [112][113], Patrick Manning estimates that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th century, but about 1.5 million died on board ship. [49] In 1571 Portugal, supported by the Kingdom of Kongo, took control of the south-western region of Angola in order to secure its threatened economic interest in the area. Several had established outposts on the African coast where they purchased slaves from local African leaders. We need in this kingdom only priests and schoolteachers, and no merchandise, unless it is wine and flour for Mass. This was by far the most important. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port. This led to more war and more destruction of empires and . Depopulation and a continuing fear of captivity made economic and agricultural development almost impossible throughout much of western Africa. Eltis, David: "The volume and structure of the transatlantic slave trade: a reassessment". [154] Slave exports to Honduras and Guatemala started in 1526. Compared to African and Europeans, New World populations did not have a history of exposure to diseases such as malaria, and therefore, no genetic resistance had been produced as a result of adaptation through natural selection. Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851". Cassare formed political and economic bonds between European and African slave traders. [Total of black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes through the 19th century comes to an estimated 11,500,000, "a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade." Boruki, David Eltis, and David Wheat, "Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America.". The third and final part of the triangle was the return of goods to Europe from the Americas. [83], The basic reason for the constant shortage of labour was that, with much cheap land available and many landowners searching for workers, free European immigrants were able to become landowners themselves relatively quickly, thus increasing the need for workers. Owners turned to Africa for cheap labor. [191] Following Lord Mansfield's decision in 1772, many abolitionists and slave-holders believed that slaves became free upon entering the British isles. Cause: Influx of Africans into the Americas and West Indies. 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution, Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom, Marriage of enslaved people (United States), Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries, The Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians, Historiography of the British Empire Slavery, US Constitution (Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1), Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux, Committee for the Relief of the Black Poor, Learn how and when to remove this template message, International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies, "The history of the transatlantic slave trade", "Opinion How to End the Slavery Blame-Game", "Implications of the slave trade for African societies", "West Africa National Museums Liverpool", "Shipwreck Shines Light on Historic Shift in Slave Trade", "Slave Cooking and Meals Arrival in the Americas", "Cultivating Knowledge: African Tobacco and Cotton Workers in Colonial British America", "Colonial Tobacco: Key Commodity of the Spanish Empire, 15001800", "Slavery in Medieval and Early Modern Iberia", "Iberian Roots of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, 14401640", "Slave trade: a root of contemporary African Crisis", "Skeletons Discovered: First African Slaves in New World", "Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America by ALEX BORUCKI, DAVID ELTIS, AND DAVID WHEAT, p. 446, 457, 460", Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America by ALEX BORUCKI, DAVID ELTIS, AND DAVID WHEAT, "Royal African Company Trades for Commodities Along the West African Coast", "The South Sea Company's slaving activities by Helen Paul, University of St. Andrews", "Indian cotton textiles in the eighteenth-century Atlantic economy", "William Ansah Sessarakoo, Slave Trader born", "Historical survey > The international slave trade". Denmark, which had been active in the slave trade, was the first country to ban the trade through legislation in 1792, which took effect in 1803. Afonso I of Kongo believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. The Spanish and Portuguese had been using enslaved Africans since the 16th century.. Web. ): Eltis, David. The Atlantic slave trade was the result of, among other things, labour shortage, itself in turn created by the desire of European colonists to exploit New World land and resources for capital profits. For instance, Portuguese traders attempted to conquer the Bissagos Islands in 1535. [22] He identified these as being the drive to find new and profitable commercial opportunities outside Europe. [56] Decisive was the Treaty of Tordesillas which did not allow Spanish ships in African ports. This was connected to another distinction: slavery in West Africa was not reserved for racial or religious minorities, as it was in European colonies, although the case was otherwise in places such as Somalia, where Bantus were taken as slaves for the ethnic Somalis.[102][103]. The status of chattel slavery was thus confined to non-Europeans, such as Africans. [234][235], In 2009, the Civil Rights Congress of Nigeria has written an open letter to all African chieftains who participated in trade calling for an apology for their role in the Atlantic slave trade: "We cannot continue to blame the white men, as Africans, particularly the traditional rulers, are not blameless. [180][179][181], Karl Marx, in his influential economic history of capitalism, Das Kapital, wrote that "the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins, signaled the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production". They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself. This in America slavery was caused by a number of factors as it will be discussed below (Graebnor, 1978). [138], The slave trade was hated by many sailors, and those who joined the crews of slave ships often did so through coercion or because they could find no other employment. Du Bois wrote in 1948 that alongside the Atlantic slave trade in Africans a great world movement of modern times is "the partitioning of Africa after the Franco-Prussian War which . Saidiya Hartman has argued that the deaths of enslaved people was incidental to the acquisition of profit and to the rise of capitalism: "Death wasn't a goal of its own but just a by-product of commerce, which has the lasting effect of making negligible all the millions of lives lost. J. D. Fage compared the demographic effect on the continent as a whole. [96] In parts of Africa, convicted criminals could be punished by enslavement, a punishment which became more prevalent as slavery became more lucrative. Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.59-84, 224. killing africans. [25] It started the global silver trade from the 16th to 18th centuries and led to direct European involvement in the Chinese porcelain trade. The Atlantic Slave Trade had powerful negative impacts on African society: The trading process was brutal to everyone involved, the population decreased and their culture crumbled. [123], The kings of Dahomey sold war captives into transatlantic slavery; they would otherwise have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. So, while the U.S. Constitution, which went into effect in the autumn of 1788, permitted the resumption of that business, South Carolina remained committed to abstaining from the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Economic incentives for warlords and tribes to engage in the slave trade promoted an atmosphere of lawlessness and violence. William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville argued that "the slave population of the colonies could be maintained without it." Diseases introduced by the Europeans like smallpox unfortunately killed a lot of the Native Americans which led to there being a need for workers which led to the Atlantic Slave trade. [44], As historian John Thornton remarked, "the actual motivation for European expansion and for navigational breakthroughs was little more than to exploit the opportunity for immediate profits made by raiding and the seizure or purchase of trade commodities". The Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, although it was the largest in volume and intensity. [10] The first Africans kidnapped to the English colonies were classified as indentured servants, with legal standing similar to that of contract-based workers coming from Britain and Ireland. Other fatalities were suicides, slaves who escaped by jumping overboard. There they bought people in exchange for goods and loaded them into the ships. A main cause of the trade was the colonies that European countries were starting to develop. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.2million enslaved Africans arrived in the Americas from the following regions in the following proportions:[108], Although the slave trade was largely global, there was considerable intracontinental slave trade in which 8 million people were enslaved within the African continent. Cudjoe Lewis, who died in 1935, was long believed to be the last survivor of Clotilda and the last surviving slave brought from Africa to the United States,[212] but recent research has found that two other survivors from Clotilda outlived him, Redoshi (who died in 1937) and Matilda McCrear (who died in 1940).[213][214]. Birmingham, the largest gun-producing town in Britain at the time, supplied guns to be traded for slaves. Web. "[188], Similarly, John Darwin writes "The rapid conversion from white indentured labour to black slavery made the English Caribbean a frontier of civility where English (later British) ideas about race and slave labour were ruthlessly adapted to local self-interestIndeed, the root justification for the system of slavery and the savage apparatus of coercion on which its preservation depended was the ineradicable barbarism of the slave population, a product, it was argued, of its African origins". [172] The benefit derived from trading slaves for European goods was enough to make the Kingdom of Benin rejoin the trans-Atlantic slave trade after centuries of non-participation. [12][13]:194 The number purchased by the traders was considerably higher, as the passage had a high death rate with approximately 1.22.4million dying during the voyage and millions more in seasoning camps in the Caribbean after arrival in the New World. Additionally, there was the desire to create an alternative trade network to that controlled by the Muslim Ottoman Empire of the Middle East, which was viewed as a commercial, political and religious threat to European Christendom. 23-24 ISBN 978-0-415-35385-4. Before the African slave trade was completely banned by participating nations in 1853, 15.3million enslaved people had arrived in the Americas. While the effects of the Atlantic trade on the enslaved Africans have been partly documented, those on the non-enslaved Africans remain largely unknown.2 The trade brought about enduring insecurities, economic chaos, and political disorders in Africa. [4] Some Africans had made a business out of capturing Africans from neighboring ethnic groups or war captives and selling them. From 1580 until 1640, Portugal was temporarily united with Spain in the Iberian Union. However, by the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a racial caste, with African slaves and their future offspring being legally the property of their owners, as children born to slave mothers were also slaves (partus sequitur ventrem). With the arrival of a staunchly anti-slavery government in Washington in 1861, the Atlantic slave trade was doomed. [48] "Peaceful trade became the rule all along the African coast", although there were some rare exceptions when acts of aggression led to violence. Africans had great influence on the continent itself, but they had no direct influence on the engines behind the trade in the capital firms, the shipping and insurance companies of Europe and America, or the plantation systems in Americas. Alabama is the fourth state to pass a slavery apology, following votes by the legislatures in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. A fear of monetary compensation might have been one of the reasons for the opposition. Native peoples were at first utilized as slave labour by Europeans until a large number died from overwork and Old World diseases. African-American historian W. E. B. The passing of this resolution came on the heels of the 400th-anniversary celebration of the city of Jamestown, Virginia, which was the first permanent English colony to survive in what would become the United States. Indentured Servitude. But there was also significant other trading which is shown in the table below. In: Northrup, David (ed. [228] Luc Gnacadja, minister of environment and housing for Benin, later said: "The slave trade is a shame, and we do repent for it. (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983). Around 1560, the Portuguese began a regular slave trade to Brazil. As more and more diplomatic arrangements were made by Castlereagh, the owners of slave ships started flying false flags of nations that had not agreed, especially the United States. [26][27][28][29], By the 15th century, slavery had existed in the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal and Spain) of Western Europe throughout recorded history. David Richardson, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 16601807," in P. J. Marshall, ed. The Atlantic slave trade. The economical system became inflicted, and a power struggle formed, leaving enormous holes in African society. [237], On 27 November 2006, British Prime Minister Tony Blair made a partial apology for Britain's role in the African slavery trade. Mercantilists believed that wealth (gold and silver) equated to power and that accumulating the most gold granted the most power. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast". The Roman Empire had established its system of slavery in ancient times. "[217], In 1787, the British helped 400 freed slaves, primarily African Americans freed during the American Revolutionary War who had been evacuated to London, to relocate to Sierra Leone. Cases of European merchants kidnapping free Africans into slavery often resulted in fierce retaliation from Africans, who stopped trade or captured or killed Europeans. A number of African kings and merchants took part in the trading of enslaved people from 1440 to about 1833. J.R. Ward, "The British West Indies in the Age of Abolition," in P. J. Marshall, ed. [143], Levels and extent of immunity varies from disease to disease. On November 7, 1693, Charles II issued a Royal Decree, providing sanctuary in Spanish Florida for fugitive slaves from the British colony of South Carolina. (p.57, source: "Les Siecles obscurs de l'Afrique Noire (Paris: Fayard, 1970)]. the economies and history of the world. [19] In doing so, they came into contact with societies living along the west African coast and in the Americas which they had never previously encountered. Section 3 The Atlantic Slave Trade Answers. Prime Minister of the Netherlands Mark Rutte apologized for the Netherlands' role in the history of slavery on 19 December 2022. About 64 survived to establish the second "Province of Freedom" following the failed first attempt at colonization between 1787 and 1789. ): Fage, J. D. "Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History". The major advantage that Europe had was in ship building. What impact did the Berlin Conference have on Africa quizlet? In Fage's article "Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History", he notes that for West Africans "there were really few effective means of mobilizing labour for the economic and political needs of the state" without the slave trade. By contrast, the British, and the Dutch before them, sold slaves everywhere in the Americas. Washington recoiled at British policing of the high seas. Atlantic Slave Trade. In 1820, they sent their first ship to Liberia, and within a decade around two thousand African Americans had been settled there. [203] The problem was that the treaties and declarations were hard to enforce, given the very high profits available to private interests. [243] On 18 June 2009, the United States Senate issued an apologetic statement decrying the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery". Sizable African population and mixed races in the Western Hemisphere. [239], On 24 August 2007, Ken Livingstone (Mayor of London) apologized publicly for London's role in the slave trade. "[75][76], Meanwhile, it became a business for privately owned enterprises, reducing international complications. The Trans-Atlantic trade was caused by the increasing demand for luxury items from Europe and . [86], Historian David Eltis argues that Africans were enslaved because of cultural beliefs in Europe that prohibited the enslavement of cultural insiders, even if there was a source of labour that could be enslaved (such as convicts, prisoners of war and vagrants). In that way, they were able to diversify a large part of the risk away. Cause: Sugar plantations and tobacco farms required large amount of workers to be profitable. David Richardson has concluded that the profits from the slave trade amounted to less than 1% of domestic investment in Britain. The act only took effect on the first day of 1808; since a compromise clause in the US Constitution (Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1) prohibited federal, although not state, restrictions on the slave trade before 1808. This can be interpreted as an institutional reform which reduced the cost of doing business. Many of our subjects eagerly lust after Portuguese merchandise that your subjects have brought into our domains. [155][156] Captive indigenous opponents, including women and children, were also sold into slavery at a substantial profit, to be transported to West Indies colonies. Patrick Manning has shown that the slave trade did have a profound impact on African demographics and social institutions, but criticized Inikori's approach for not taking other factors (such as famine and drought) into account, and thus being highly speculative.[170]. After entering the sugar colony business late, British naval supremacy and control over key islands such as Jamaica, Trinidad, the Leeward Islands, and Barbados and the territory of British Guiana gave it an important edge over all competitors; while many British did not make gains, a handful of individuals made small fortunes. In 1526, they completed the first transatlantic slave voyage to Brazil, and other Europeans soon followed. Off the coast of Africa, European migrants, under the directions of the Kingdom of Castile, invaded and colonised the Canary Islands during the 15th century, where they converted much of the land to the production of wine and sugar. Europeans go to Africa, buy the slaves, take them across the Atlantic, bring them to the Americas, the slaves then will produce goods that would be shipped back to Europe and be sold on the European market. This argument holds that Eurocentric history has been blind to the most important element in this fight for emancipation, precisely, the constant revolt and the antagonism of slaves' revolts. being more powerful. A high crew mortality rate on the return voyage was in the captain's interests as it reduced the number of sailors who had to be paid on reaching the home port. The number of lives lost in the procurement of slaves remains a mystery but may equal or exceed the number who survived to be enslaved. Many did not survive the ship rides to the Americas. -In the new world, the Atlantic Slave Trade also produced deep social divides between the rich white and poor black communities. Effect: Slaves in Africa had legal rights and opportunities. [147], As Britain rose in naval power and settled continental North America and some islands of the West Indies, they became the leading slave traders. Two rough estimates by scholars of the numbers African slaves held over twelve centuries in the Muslim world are 11.5 million[36] and 14 million,[37][38] while other estimates indicate a number between 12 and 15 million African slaves prior to the 20th century.[39]. The demographic effects of the slave trade is a controversial and . In addition to the depopulation Africa experienced because of the slave trade, African nations were left with severely imbalanced gender ratios, with females comprising up to 65 percent of the population in hard-hit areas such as Angola. However, a vibrant illegal trade continued to ship large numbers of enslaved people to Brazil and also to Cuba until the 1860s, when British enforcement and further diplomacy finally ended the Atlantic slave trade. [228], At a UN conference on the Atlantic slave trade in 2001, the Dutch Minister for Urban Policy and Integration of Ethnic Minorities Roger van Boxtel said that the Netherlands "recognizes the grave injustices of the past." [226], The Rastafari movement, which originated in Jamaica, where 92% of the population are descended from the Atlantic slave trade, has made efforts to publicise the slavery and to ensure it is not forgotten, especially through reggae music.[227]. The Africans were forcefully taken by the slave traders to go and work on plantations in the Americas. For 150 years, Spanish transatlantic traffic was operating at trivial levels. [43] While those held in slavery in their own region of Africa might hope to escape, those shipped away had little chance of returning to Africa. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. Slavery was not born of racism: rather, racism was the consequence of slavery. [119] However, some African groups proved particularly adept and brutal at the practice of enslaving, such as Bono State, Oyo, Benin, Igala, Kaabu, Ashanti, Dahomey, the Aro Confederacy and the Imbangala war bands.[120][121]. [35], However, estimates are imprecise, which can affect comparison between different slave trades. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French. Jones, Adam (2006). The regions of Africa from which these slaves were taken is given in the following table, from the same source. Between 650-1600, Muslims transported 17 million Africans to Muslim lands of North Africa and Southwest Asia. "You can look across there to see the institutions that still have the benefit of the wealth they created from slavery," he said, pointing towards the financial district, before breaking down in tears. Historian, Kathrin Kubetzek, says in Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Africa, "As African rulers organized the capture of slaves, traditions were created of brutal and arbitrary intervention by the powerful in people' lives.". Account of Captives sold by Mass. Exporting crops and goods from the New World to Europe often proved to be more profitable than producing them on the European mainland. West Indian sugar became ubiquitous as an additive to Indian tea. He argued that it was this economic trade agreement dating back to the 16th century that led to Africa being underdeveloped in his own time. [206] Between 1807 and 1860, the Royal Navy's Squadron seized approximately 1,600 ships involved in the slave trade and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard these vessels. The King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice: We think this trade must go on. Conversely, Africans were viewed as outsiders and thus qualified for enslavement. [34] Those sold into slavery were usually from a different ethnic group than those who captured them, whether enemies or just neighbors. To get gold, a country had to export more than it imported. to get power they needed to fight. Incidental death occurs when life has no normative value, when no humans are involved, when the population is, in effect, seen as already dead. Eltis argues that traditional beliefs existed in Europe against enslaving Christians (few Europeans not being Christian at the time) and those slaves that existed in Europe tended to be non-Christians and their immediate descendants (since a slave converting to Christianity did not guarantee emancipation) and thus by the fifteenth century Europeans as a whole came to be regarded as insiders. [96] Europeans who desired safe and uninterrupted trade aimed to prevent kidnapping incidents, and the British passed the "Acts of Parliament for Regulating the Slave Trade" in 1750 which outlawed the abduction of free Africans by "fraud, force, or violence". Mercantilism was an economic theory used by most European countries from c. 1500-1750. Where did they go? Depopulation and a continuing fear of captivity made economic and agricultural development almost impossible throughout much of western Africa. "In the eighteenth century many slave voyages took at least 2 months. The effect of the trade on African societies is much debated, due to the influx of goods to Africans. In Brazil, however, slavery itself was not ended until 1888, making it the last country in the Americas to end involuntary servitude. Led the Khasso into increasing contact with the arrival of a staunchly anti-slavery government in Washington cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet. Immunity varies from disease to disease slave population of the first transatlantic slave trade is controversial! Lands of North Africa and Southwest Asia was an economic theory used by most European countries c.! World to Europe often proved to be known as the `` slave coast '' other fatalities were suicides, who. The Bight of Benin 's shore soon came to be known as the `` slave coast '' wine... As `` empty rhetoric '' that failed to address the issue properly they purchased from. Farms required large amount of workers to be profitable jamestown is also recognized as one of the high.! `` slave coast '' Rutte apologized for the opposition role in the Americas the of... Continued the Castlereagh policies settled there thus qualified for enslavement following votes by the increasing demand for items., Paul E. lovejoy, Transformation in slavery ( CUP, 1983 ) Washington recoiled at British of... 1526, they sent their first ship to Liberia, and david,! 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Took at least 2 months Fayard, 1970 ) ] `` Blood and Treasure: reduction!, cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet through raids that occurred at gunpoint through joint ventures with Europeans! 143 ], however great, can never cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet a trade ordained God! Bissagos cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet in 1535 as being the drive to find new and profitable commercial opportunities outside Europe largest in and. Slave coast '' slave traders more war and more destruction of empires and to Spanish.!, Meanwhile, it became a business for privately owned enterprises, reducing international complications bought people in exchange goods.: slaves in Africa had legal rights and opportunities compared the demographic effect on the European settlements of from...
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